Autors: Hristov, A. V., Gotseva, D. A., Trifonov, R. I., Petrovic J.
Title: Development of an IoT System for Acquisition of Data and Control Based on External Battery State of Charge
Keywords: battery-powered systems, integrated measurement, Internet of Things, low voltage, single-cell lithium-ion battery, State of Charge, visualization

Abstract: In the context of small, battery-powered systems, a lightweight, reusable architecture is needed for integrated measurement, visualization, and cloud telemetry that minimizes hardware complexity and energy footprint. Existing solutions require high resources. This limits their applicability in Internet of Things (IoT) devices with low power consumption. The present work demonstrates the process of design, implementation and experimental evaluation of a single-cell lithium-ion battery monitoring prototype, intended for standalone operation or integration into other systems. The architecture is compact and energy efficient, with a reduction in complexity and memory usage: modular architecture with clearly distinguished responsibilities, avoidance of unnecessary dynamic memory allocations, centralized error handling, and a low-power policy through the usage of deep sleep mode. The data is stored in a cloud platform, while minimal storage is used locally. The developed system combines the functional requirements for an embedded external battery monitoring system: local voltage and current measurement, approximate estimation of the State of Charge (SoC) using a look-up table (LUT) based on the discharge characteristic, and visualization on a monochrome OLED display. The conducted experiments demonstrate the typical U(t) curve and the triggering of the indicator at low charge levels (LOW − SoC ≤ 20% and CRITICAL − SoC ≤ 5%) in real-world conditions and the absence of unwanted switching of the state near the voltage thresholds.

References

  1. Espressif Systems ESP32-C6 Technical Reference Manual Available online: https://www.espressif.com/sites/default/files/documentation/esp32-c6_technical_reference_manual_en.pdf (accessed on 28 October 2025)
  2. Espressif Systems ESP32-C6-DevKitC-1 Schematic v1.4. Espressif Systems Available online: https://dl.espressif.com/dl/schematics/esp32-c6-devkitc-1-schematics_v1.4.pdf (accessed on 29 October 2025)
  3. Texas Instruments Zerø-Drift, Bi-Directional Current/Power Monitor with I2C™ Interface Available online: https://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/ina219.pdf (accessed on 16 October 2025)
  4. Solomon Systech SSD1306 OLED Display Controller Datasheet Available online: https://cdn-shop.adafruit.com/datasheets/SSD1306.pdf#:~:text=SSD1306%20is%20a%20single-chip%20CMOS%20OLED%2FPLED%20driver%20with,is%20designed%20for%20Common%20Cathode%20type%20OLED%20panel (accessed on 20 October 2025)
  5. Espressif Systems ESP32-C6-DevKitC-1 User Guide (Incl. Hardware Reference) Available online: https://docs.espressif.com/projects/esp-dev-kits/en/latest/esp32c6/esp32-c6-devkitc-1/user_guide.html (accessed on 23 October 2025)
  6. Adafruit Industries INA219 FeatherWing Product Documentation Available online: https://learn.adafruit.com/adafruit-ina219-current-sensor-breakout (accessed on 23 October 2025)
  7. Espressif Systems ESP-IDF Programming Guide. Espressif Systems Available online: https://docs.espressif.com/projects/esp-idf/en/latest/esp32/ (accessed on 23 October 2025)
  8. Panasonic Industrial Devices Technical Handbook—Lithium Batteries (Industrial Batteries for Professionals, Lithium) Available online: https://energy.panasonic.com/dam/master/pdf/eu/material/old/Panasonic_Batteries_Lithium-Handbook_2025.pdf (accessed on 15 October 2025)
  9. Chen Y. Huang X. He Y. Zhang S. Cai Y. Edge–cloud collaborative estimation lithium-ion battery SOH based on MEWOA-VMD and Transformer J. Energy Storage 2024 99 113388 10.1016/j.est.2024.113388
  10. Chen Y. Duan W. He Y. Wang S. Fernandez C. A hybrid data driven framework considering feature extraction for battery state of health estimation and remaining useful life prediction Green Energy Intell. Transp. 2024 3 100160 10.1016/j.geits.2024.100160
  11. Ubidots Ubidots for Education—API Documentation Available online: https://docs.ubidots.com/reference/welcome (accessed on 30 October 2025)
  12. Rasool F. Drieberg M. Badruddin N. Sebastian P. Qian C. Electrical battery modeling for applications in wireless sensor networks and internet of things Bull. Electr. Eng. Inform. 2021 10 1793 1802 10.11591/eei.v10i4.3106
  13. Saeed M. Khalatbarisoltani A. Deng Z. Liu W. Altaf F. Lu S. Hu X. Comparative Analysis of Control Observer-Based Methods for State Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Practical Scenarios IEEE/ASME Trans. Mechatron. 2024 30 3697 3709 10.1109/TMECH.2024.3459644
  14. Iurilli P. Brivio C. Carrillo R. Wood V. EISMOD: A DRT-based modelling framework for Li-ion cells arXiv 2022 10.48550/arXiv.2203.08515 2203.08515
  15. Martínez B. Adelantado F. Bartoli A. Vilajosana X. Exploring the Performance Boundaries of NB-IoT IEEE Internet Things J. 2019 6 5702 5712 10.1109/JIOT.2019.2904799
  16. Hussein H. Aghmadi A. Abdelrahman M. Rafin S. Mohammed O. A review of battery state of charge estimation and management systems: Models and future prospective Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Energy Environ. 2024 13 e507 10.1002/wene.507
  17. Del-Valle-Soto C. Mex-Perera C. Nolazco-Flores J.A. Velázquez R. Rossa-Sierra A. Wireless Sensor Network Energy Model and Its Use in the Optimization of Routing Protocols Energies 2020 13 728 10.3390/en13030728
  18. Gupta C.P. Kumar A. Wireless Sensor Networks: A Review Int. J. Sens. Wirel. Commun. Control. 2013 3 25 36 10.2174/22103279112029990001
  19. Guangzhou Markyn Battery Co., Ltd. Li-ion Rechargeable Button Cell Specification Available online: https://www.gmbattery.com/dl/cp11/li-ion/Button/LIR2032.pdf (accessed on 23 October 2025)
  20. Shenzhen Xingke Prof. Li-ion Battery Co., Ltd LIR2032—Charge & Discharge Characteristics (25 °C), Discharge Characteristics (Rate), Discharge Characteristics in Different Temperature Available online: https://nostris.ee/pdf/LIR2032.pdf (accessed on 25 October 2025)
  21. Kopylov E. Mizrah E. Fedchenko A. Lobanov D. Study of a lithium-ion battery charge-discharge test unit characteristics Proceedings of the IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering Surakarta, IN, USA 18–19 October 2016 10.1088/1757-899X/122/1/012015
  22. Lygte-Info, Battery Test 18650, Common Curves for All Tested Batteries Available online: https://lygte-info.dk/review/batteries2012/Common18650CurvesAll%20UK.html (accessed on 27 October 2025)
  23. Hristov A. Vakadinova V. Trifonov T. Using Arduino for Prototyping an Alarm System CAx Technologies Sofia, Bulgaria 2016 27 31
  24. Saeed M. Lu S. Song Z. Hu X. Integrated Framework for Accurate State Estimation of Lithium-ion Batteries Subject to Measurement Uncertainties IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2024 39 8813 8823 10.1109/TPEL.2024.3386739
  25. Petrovic J. LVBI (Low Voltage Battery Instrumentation) Available online: https://github.com/jpetrovic95/LVBI (accessed on 20 December 2025)
  26. Butun I. Akyildiz I. Low-Power Wide-Area Networks: Opportunities, Challenges, Risks and Threats Springer Nature Cham, Switzerland 2023 10.1007/978-3-031-32935-7
  27. Hristov A. Development of laboratory exercise “Cybersecurity of IIoT protocols” Proceedings of the 60th International Scientific Conference on Information, Communication and Energy Systems and Technologies—ICEST 2025 Ohrid, North Macedonia 26–28 June 2025 10.1109/ICEST66328.2025.11098378
  28. Hinov N. From Energy Efficiency to Energy Intelligence: Power Electronics as the Cognitive Layer of the Energy Transition Electronics 2025 14 4673 10.3390/electronics14234673
  29. Stanchev P. Hinov N. Comparative Techno-Economic and Life Cycle Assessment of Stationary Energy Storage Systems: Lithium-Ion, Lead-Acid, and Hydrogen Batteries 2025 11 382 10.3390/batteries11100382
  30. Nakov O. Lazarova M. Hinov N. Advanced Technologies and Applications in Computer Science and Engineering Electronics 2025 14 753 10.3390/electronics14040753
  31. Hristov V. Hristov A. Optimizing Packet Transmission Mechanism with Multipath Technologies Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference “Computer Science’2022” Sofia, Bulgaria 30 May–2 June 2022 10.1109/COMSCI55378.2022.9912609
  32. Hristov V. Doichev M. Ismailov A. Pepedzhiev D. Performance Analysis of Classical vs. Machine Learning-Based Image Segmentation Algorithms in a Java Web Environment Proceedings of the 2025 9th International Symposium on Multidisciplinary Studies and Innovative Technologies (ISMSIT) Ankara, Turkiye 14–16 November 2025 1 8 10.1109/ISMSIT67332.2025.11267891
  33. Woodward S. Nonlinearities of Darlington Airflow Sensor and VFC Compensate Each Other Available online: https://www.radiolocman.com/shem/schematics.html?di=659405 (accessed on 15 December 2025)

Issue

Electronics (Switzerland), vol. 15, 2026, Switzerland, https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics15030502

Full text of the publication

Вид: статия в списание, публикация в издание с импакт фактор, публикация в реферирано издание, индексирана в Scopus и Web of Science