Е-Публикации
Технически университет - София

Abstract: This study presents a comparative techno-economic and environmental assessment of three leading stationary energy storage technologies: lithium-ion batteries, lead-acid batteries, and hydrogen systems (electrolyzer–tank–fuel cell). The analysis integrates Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Levelized Cost of Storage (LCOS) to provide a holistic evaluation. The LCA covers the full cradle-to-grave stages, while LCOS accounts for capital and operational expenditures, efficiency, and cycling frequency. The results indicate that lithium-ion batteries achieve the lowest LCOS (120–180 EUR/MWh) and high round-trip efficiency (90–95%), making them optimal for short- and medium-duration storage. Lead-acid batteries, though characterized by low capital expenditures (CAPEX) and high recyclability (>95%), show limited cycle life and lower efficiency (75–80%). Hydrogen systems remain costly (>250 EUR/MWh) and less efficient (30–40%), yet they demonstrate clear advantages for long-term and seasonal storage, particularly under scenarios with “green” hydrogen production and reduced CAPEX. These findings provide practical guidance for policymakers, investors, and industry stakeholders in selecting appropriate storage solutions aligned with decarbonization and sustainability goals.

References

1. Zakeri B. Syri S. Electrical energy storage systems: A comparative life cycle cost analysis Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2014 42 569 596 10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.011
2. Schmidt O. Melchior S. Hawkes A. Staffell I. Projecting the future levelized cost of electricity storage technologies Joule 2019 3 81 100 10.1016/j.joule.2018.12.008
3. Ziegler M.S. Mueller J.M. Pereira G.D. Song J. Ferrara M. Chiang Y. Trancik J.E. Storage requirements and costs of shaping renewable energy toward grid decarbonization Joule 2019 3 2134 2153 10.1016/j.joule.2019.06.012
4. Pellow M.A. Emmott C.J.M. Barnhart C.J. Benson S.M. Hydrogen or batteries for grid storage? A Net Energy analysis Energy Environ. Sci. 2015 8 1938 1952 10.1039/c4ee04041d
5. Hiremath M. Derendorf K. Vogt T. Comparative Life cycle assessment of battery storage systems for stationary applications Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015 49 4825 4833 10.1021/es504572q
6. Notter D.A. Gauch M. Widmer R. Wäger P. Stamp A. Zah R. Althaus H.-J. Contribution of Li-Ion Batteries to the Environmental Impact of Electric Vehicles Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010 44 6550 6556 10.1021/es903729a 41078836
7. Ellingsen L.A. Majeau-Bettez G. Singh B. Srivastava A.K. Valøen L.O. Strømman A.H. Life cycle assessment of a Lithium-Ion battery vehicle pack J. Ind. Ecol. 2013 18 113 124 10.1111/jiec.12072
8. Peters J.F. Baumann M. Zimmermann B. Braun J. Weil M. The environmental impact of Li-Ion batteries and the role of key parameters—A review Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2016 67 491 506 10.1016/j.rser.2016.08.039
9. Dunn J.B. Gaines L. Kelly J.C. James C. Gallagher K.G. The significance of Li-ion batteries in electric vehicle life-cycle energy and emissions and recycling’s role in its reduction Energy Environ. Sci. 2014 8 158 168 10.1039/C4EE03029J
10. Hao H. Mu Z. Jiang S. Liu Z. Zhao F. GHG Emissions from the Production of Lithium-Ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles in China Sustainability 2017 9 504 10.3390/su9040504
11. Dai Q. Kelly J.C. Gaines L. Wang M. Life cycle analysis of Lithium-Ion batteries for automotive applications Batteries 2019 5 48 10.3390/batteries5020048
12. Majeau-Bettez G. Hawkins T.R. Strømman A.H. Life cycle environmental assessment of Lithium-Ion and nickel metal hydride batteries for Plug-In Hybrid and Battery Electric vehicles Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011 45 5454 10.1021/es2015082
13. Porzio J. Scown C.D. Life-Cycle Assessment considerations for batteries and battery materials Adv. Energy Mater. 2021 11 2100771 10.1002/aenm.202100771
14. Llamas-Orozco J.A. Meng F. Walker G.S. Abdul-Manan A.F.N. MacLean H.L. Posen I.D. McKechnie J. Estimating the environmental impacts of global lithium-ion battery supply chain: A temporal, geographical, and technological perspective PNAS Nexus 2023 2 pgad361 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad361 38034093
15. Gutsch M. Leker J. Costs, carbon footprint and environmental impacts of lithium-ion battery materials and recycling Appl. Energy 2024 360 122700 10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.122132
16. Kobayashi T. Kondo H. Sasaki T. Life cycle assessment integrating the effects of recycling and reuse for battery circulation J. Power Sources 2024 624 235544 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2024.235544
17. Paul D. Pechancová V. Saha N. Pavelková D. Saha N. Motiei M. Jamatia T. Chaudhuri M. Ivanichenko A. Venher M. et al. Life-cycle assessment of lithium-based batteries: Review of sustainability dimensions Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2024 206 113171 10.1016/j.rser.2024.114860
18. Rydh C.J. Environmental assessment of vanadium redox and lead-acid batteries for stationary energy storage J. Power Sources 1999 80 21 29 10.1016/S0378-7753(98)00249-3
19. Ma Y. Yu S. Wang J. Yu W. LCA/LCC analysis of starting-lighting-ignition lead-acid battery in China PeerJ 2018 6 e5238 10.7717/peerj.5238
20. Sridevi J. Ananthi S. Gokilavani R. Al-Farouni M. Abdul Ameer S. Life Cycle Assessment of Battery Energy Storage Technologies for Vehicular Applications E3S Web Conf. 2024 564 08004 10.1051/e3sconf/202456408004
21. Bhandari R. Trudewind C.A. Zapp P. Life cycle assessment of hydrogen production via electrolysis—A review J. Clean. Prod. 2013 85 151 163 10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.07.048
22. Osman A.I. Nasr M. Mohamed A.R. Abdelhaleem A. Ayati A. Farghali M. Al-Muhtaseb A.H. Al-Fatesh A.S. Rooney D.W. Life cycle assessment of hydrogen production, storage, and utilization toward sustainability Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Energy Environ. 2024 13 e526 10.1002/wene.526
23. Puig-Samper G. Bargiacchi E. Iribarren D. Dufour J. Life-cycle assessment of hydrogen systems: A systematic review and meta-regression analysis J. Clean. Prod. 2024 470 143330 10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.143330
24. De León C.M. Ríos C. Molina P. Brey J. Levelized Cost of Storage (LCOS) for a hydrogen system Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2023 52 1274 1284 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.07.239
25. Wu D. Wang D. Ramachandran T. Holladay J. A techno-economic assessment framework for hydrogen energy storage toward multiple energy delivery pathways and grid services Energy 2022 249 123638 10.1016/j.energy.2022.123638
26. International Energy Agency (IEA) Global Hydrogen Review 2023 IEA Paris, France 2023 Available online: https://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2023 (accessed on 6 September 2025)
27. Reznicek E.P. Koleva M.N. King J. Kotarbinski M. Grant E. Vijayshankar S. Brunik K. Thomas J. Gupta A. Hammond S. et al. Techno-economic analysis of low-carbon hydrogen production pathways for decarbonizing steel and ammonia production Cell Rep. Sustain. 2025 2 100338 10.1016/j.crsus.2025.100338
28. Todorov G. Kamberov K. Todorov T. Thermodynamic Analysis and Optimization of a Regenerative Heat Exchange System for Solid Oxide Electrolyzer-Based Hydrogen Production Energies 2025 18 4424 10.3390/en18164424
29. Todorov G. Kralov I. Koprev I. Vasilev H. Naydenova I. Coal Share Reduction Options for Power Generation during the Energy Transition: A Bulgarian Perspective Energies 2024 17 929 10.3390/en17040929
30. ISO 14040:2006 Environmental Management—Life Cycle Assessment—Principles and Framework International Organization for Standardization Geneva, Switzerland 2006
31. ISO 14044:2006 Environmental Management—Life Cycle Assessment—Requirements and Guidelines International Organization for Standardization Geneva, Switzerland 2006

Issue

Copyright MDPI